英國dissertation網_英國索爾福德大學dissertation寫作研究建議_a research proposal is for

School of the Built Environment, the University of Salford

Developing a Research Proposal

The purpose of a research proposal is for the author to state their proposed area of research and to demonstrate that appropriate consideration has been given to whether the research is achievable. A proposal takes the researcher through a series of steps and questions such that a robust and manageable statement of intent can be written. Typically a research proposal has a standard set of sections 英國dissertation網and although the length of proposals vary, this guide is written on the basis of 2,000 to 4,000 words. Note that text books will vary as to the recommended sections in a Research Proposal. The sections below are the minimum requirements for the submission of your research proposal, you may add further sections if this is appropriate, or if your supervisor requires an additional section. If a section a not relevant, then please still use the heading but write ‘not relevant’ – this saves the assessors trying to spot what is missing!

1. Working title

This is a ‘working’ title because it will be refined as the research is undertaken as rarely does research go exactly according to plan. A good working title is relatively short, simple such that the reader can easily understand it, and it provides an understanding of the breadth / scope of the study. Example working titles are:

• ‘the use of Access Statements in the UK planning process’;
• ‘is universal design just good design?’;
• ‘developing an access auditing tool / checklist for use in public parks’.

2. Aim of the research

The aim is always singular and is a statement of what it is you are seeking to achieve by undertaking this research. Hart (1998) refers to the aims as being ‘general statements of intent and direction of the research’. Note here that Hart sees aims as being plural, so there will always be contradictions with what you read about approaches to research. What is important is that you follow what feels right for you, always ensuring that you can justify why you have taken a particular approach.

A good aim is fairly focussed such that you demonstrate that you have narrowed down the topic to something that is do-able and manageable. An example of an aim is:

• to investigate the impact that poorly designed buildings have on the lives of disabled people [example 1]

Note that Example 1 is fairly broad and to effectively assess the impact would probably take 5 years of assessing a considerable number of buildings and interviewing many people. A way to narrow and make more manageable would be to further define it, so possibly:

• to investigate the barriers that people face in accessing poorly designed buildings [example 2]

We’ve narrowed Example 2 to exclude looking at ‘impact on lives’ by focusing on ‘barriers’ rather than everything to do with a persons life;#p#分頁標題#e#

• to investigate the barriers that wheelchair users face in accessing poorly designed buildings [example 3]

In Example 3 we’ve narrowed the focus of the ‘subject’ of the research;

• to investigate the barriers that wheelchair users face in accessing public library facilities [example 4]

In Example 4 we’ve narrowed the focus of the ‘subject’ and the focus of the ‘context’.

An alternative to writing the aim as a statement, is to consider the aim as a question or as a hypothesis. Gray (2004: p68-75) discusses good and bad questions and the difference between a question and 英國dissertation網a hypothesis. Kerlinger (1986) suggests that a good question expresses a relationship between variables, is unambiguous, and ends in a “?” Gray (2004) adds to this by classifying questions into 4 main types, namely:

• Descriptive – what is happening?
how common is drug use among university students?
• Normative – what is happening compared to what should happen?
how serious is drug use among university students?
• Correlation – what is the relationship, and the strength of this relationship between variable x and variable y?
what is the relationship between gender, academic performance and university drug use?
• Impact – what impact does a change in X have on Y?
has a drug awareness programme had any effect on the level of drug use among university students?

By contrast, a hypothesis is a ‘conjectural statement of the relationship between 2 or more variables’ (Kerlinger 1986), but add to this the fact that these variables should also be able to be measured. Gray (2004) gives an example of a research question being ‘Why is street crime more common in inner city areas?, but if this were written as a hypothesis (to be proved or disproved) an example would be ‘high levels of street crime in inner city areas is a product of liberal policing policies’.

3. Objectives

Objectives are one of the more difficult parts in developing a proposal for your research partly because you need to know exactly what you want to research in order to write robust objectives, and partly because the textbooks talk about objectives differently. Gray (2004 p 73) refers to the writing of objectives as ‘quite challenging’ and he refers to them as ‘operational definitions’ rather than as objectives.

Essentially objectives are statements of intended outcomes from the research, not written as questions or hypotheses but written as statements. So in effect they are written as though you have completed the research and are looking back on what you did in order to meet the aim of the research. Another way of looking at objectives is to think about what it is you need to demonstrate an understanding of in order to meet the aim of the research. An aim / question / hypothesis would typically have about 5 or 6 objectives to support it. The objectives needs to be SMART – specific (and focused), measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely (fit within the timescale for the research).#p#分頁標題#e#

4. Justification

In this section of the Research Proposal you need to justify why there is a need for the research.

5. Review of the literature

This is undertaken in two stages by firstly searching for and finding relevant literature, and secondly by analysing / reviewing what you have found.

There is also two elements to literature, namely the literature dealing with the focus of the research (based on the aim), and the literature on research strategy and techniques, and data analysis methods.

According to Hart (2001) the challenge to undertaking a successful literature search is to:
• Plan – understanding the ways in which information is organised and made available;
• Maintain records;
• Extract information from useful sources, including the main arguments, theories, concepts and definitions.

A literature search is easy if the aim of the research is robust and clearly defined. A poor literature search is typically a result of an ill-defined aim such that there is too much information to search, it is too time consuming, and you experience information overload. So a robust aim, and a methodical approach to undertaking the search are important. Gray (2004) has a good section on literature searching under ‘locating the literature’ pages 44 to 52.

The University has a considerable number of databases that you can use for undertaking a search which work on the basis of identifying appropriate keywords and the type of material you want from the search – newspaper articles, magazine articles, expert opinion, research journal articles. Most of these databases can be accessed from outside the University (off-campus). You will require an Athens user name and password. Details of the databases are available from the library web site www.isd.salford.ac.uk/library/ the key section being ‘electronic resources’.

Having found a number of pieces of literature, the important next step is to see how this literature can inform your thesis, and for this you need to undertake a critical review. Poor literature reviews tend to be descriptive or narrative, possibly with some discussion. A critical review involves analysing and evaluating the literature rather than just describing it. Gray (2004) suggests that any critical review should provide:
• An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the main theories;
• A clear understanding of the topic;
• Citing of all key studies;
• A clear indication of how the review links to the aim and objectives;
• A definition of the boundaries of the research;
• A selection and synthesis of existing arguments;
• Through gradual refinement, a clear demarcation of the research problem.

In discussing the last bullet point, Gray (2004) picks up the phrase ‘gradual refinement’ by explaining that in undertaking a critical literature review you should be ‘touring the literature, but also pausing to focus on areas that have emerged as important’ gradually refining the discussion ‘down to a set of core issues and arguments’.#p#分頁標題#e#

The above bullet points will not be used as headings within the literature review, they are more useful as a set of questions to ask yourself when you have completed the review.

In terms of presenting literature within the thesis, usually a small section of literature review will be included in the Introductory Chapter to help contextualise the subject being studied, and a full literature review will be provided as a stand alone chapter.

6. Research Strategy

The general approach taken in research is commonly referred to as research strategy (Robson 1993), although text books do vary in their terminology and how they classify research strategies. ‘One simple approach which is widely used distinguishes between 3 main strategies, experiments, surveys and case studies’ (Robson 1993). Note that Robson (1993) goes on to suggest that ‘the 3 strategies do not provide a logical partitioning covering all possible forms of enquiry ….. and also it can make a lot of sense to combine strategies’ for some research questions.

• Experiment – measures the effects of manipulating one variable on another variable; typically undertaken in a controlled environment such as a laboratory, but can also be applicable to research undertaken outside of a traditional laboratory environment for example in natural settings. Typical features (Robson 1993) are:
o selection of samples of individuals from known populations;
o allocation of samples to different experimental conditions;
o introduction of planned change to one or more of the variables;
o control of other variables;
o usually involves hypothesis testing.

• Surveys – collection of information in a standardised way from groups of people. Typical features (Robson 1993) are:
o Selection of samples of individuals from known populations;
o Collection of relatively small amount of data in standardised form from each individual;
o Typical techniques are questionnaire, interview.

• Case study – development of detailed or intensive knowledge about a single case or a small number of related cases. Typical features (Robson 1993) are:
o 英國dissertation網Selection of a single case or small number of cases;
o Study of the case in its context / setting;
o Collection of information from a range of techniques including observation, interview and documentary analysis. (Note also that use of questionnaire techniques in case study strategies is becoming increasingly common).

Within the Research Proposal there will be discussion of the strategy to be adopted with appropriate justification. The student will also provide detail of the implementation of the strategy in relation to the proposed research. For example, if case studies are to be used – how many and why? Which case studies and why? How will you secure access to the information?

7. Research techniques#p#分頁標題#e#

Research techniques are the tools or methods you will use to collect information to inform your research strategy. Sometimes they are referred to as ‘tactics of enquiry’, or research instruments or data collection methods. Typically four techniques are generally referred to (Gray 2004, Robson 1993) namely questionnaires, interviews, observation, and unobtrusive measures such as archive analysis, access audits. The choice of technique depends on the aim of the research / question being asked such that appropriate techniques are used to ensure that the research outcomes are valid.

All text books provide an overview of these methods, and some text books write specifically on a single method such as Oppenheim (1966) on questionnaire design, and Yin (1989) on case study design.

A good Research Proposal will discuss the technique(s) to be used, and will justify why this technique(s) is appropriate for the research strategy adopted. The Proposal will also identify possible problems that may arise in administering the technique(s), identifying strategies to minimise the impact of any potential problems.

8. Approach to analysis

The approach to analysis is typically either quantitative (analysing numbers and data which can be transferred into numbers) or qualitative (analysing words and other data of a non-numerical form). Typically the data collected through the research techniques will require both quantitative and qualitative analysis. A questionnaire for example is likely to contain questions which have generated numerical information, such as age of respondent and non-numerical information, such as opinion and attitude.

Analysis requires careful planning, preferably at the same time as developing the research techniques. For example when writing a questionnaire you also need to consider how to analyse the responses. Data analysis can be time consuming so it is important that appropriate planning is undertaken such that the analysis is not rushed and a poor thesis is written as a result.

A good Research Proposal will address the range of data that will be gathered from the research techniques, with a discussion on how this information will be analysed.

9. Ethical considerations

All students are required to address the need for ethical approval within their Research Proposal. If a research approach does not require ethical approval, the reasons why approval is not required must be stated in the Proposal. If ethical approval is required, the appropriate approval paperwork must be included within the proposal, possibly as an Annex. Students are referred to the handout on ethics:

Guidance on ethical considerations in undertaking research and / or assessment of practice on human subjects

10. References

References should be provided following a system of referencing such as Harvard, British or Vancouver. A separate handout is available on the Harvard system of referencing.

11. Work schedule

This is a timetable for completing the research. It should identify key activities and approximate times for undertaking these, non-research activities such as time out for holidays etc, and it should identify intended date of submission of the completed thesis.

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References

Gray, D.E., 2004. Doing Research in the Real World. London: Sage Publications.

Hart, C, 1998. Doing a Literature Review, London: Sage Publications.

Hart, C, 2001. Doing a Literature Review, London: Sage Publications.

Kerlinger, F.N., 1986. Foundations of Behavioural Research. Florida: Holt, Rheinart and Winston.

Oppenheim, A.N., 1966. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York: Basic Books.

英國dissertation網Robson, C. 1993. Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwells.

Yin, R.K., 1989. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications.

Further guidance on writing research proposals

Punch, K.F. 2006. Developing Effective Research Proposals. London: Sage Publications.